Legend of Alexander

Alexander the Great Mozaic (Wiki)

After a day of acclimatization for the oxygen starved high altitudes of Ladakh we started our long drive towards Dah to meet Alexander’s kin. It was a hot sunny day and we had to stop 5 kilometres short of Dah. The heat from the scorching sun has melted too much snow, raising the height of water in the river to dangerous levels. Indus, the mighty river that Alexander once crossed to enter India, has overflowed and blocked our path to Dah. But it happened to be our lucky day. 

We came to know from the locals that there is another region where the so-called ‘Pure Aryans’ live. We took a difficult curvy road, up the mountain, to reach the Sanith village that consisted of only 24 houses. The people here look and speak a language different from the Ladakis. These Western Ladakhi people belong to Brokpas or Minaro tribe and speak archaic Shina language. They can be easily identified by their flowery headdress. They prefer to call themselves ‘pure Aryan’ whose ancestors were part of Alexander’s lost army. 

My driver insisted that they speak Aryan language that is a mixture of Hindi and English. Interestingly, though he understands both English and Hindi, he cannot decipher their language. Genetic studies done on the people of Brokpas or Minaro tribe show only a faint Greek connection. As we saw earlier, ‘Aryan’ is not a race, rather a linguistic division. Whatever their origin is, our romanticism with fair skin helps this little isolated tribe with tourism. Being ‘pure Aryans’ did not bring tourism; rather it was tourism that made them ‘pure Aryans’.

Brokpas

Alexander III of Macedon was one of the greatest kings of the ancient world. His father, King Philip, was a great soldier who carved out a powerful army. His mother, Olympias, was a fierce tribal princess who kept snakes as pets. According to rumours, Olympias was struck by a bolt of lightening and was visited by the king of gods, Zeus, when she was pregnant. Hours later Alexander was born. Born under the sign of Leo, the king of beasts, Alexander was destined to achieve greatness. In a single decade he forged an empire as large as the ones Roman Empire accumulated over centuries.

Alexander in Persia

While many tribes have entered India over the ages, Alexander is considered as the first king to have crossed the Indus. There are lots of myths surrounding the legend of Macedon. Thousands of years ago, when the gods walked with the mortals, Indian saints unravelled the mystery of immortality. The magic was found in the juice of Soma plants, growing in the banks of the great Indus River. Alexander the Great, known locally as Sikander, came to know about it and wanted to find it so that he could rule the world eternally. In his voyage, he befriended a local person who was guiding him towards the secret and sacred place. After a point of time they parted ways to make the search quicker. One day, accidentally, a dried fish fell into a spring from the hand of Sikander’s friend. To his surprise, the dead fish came back to life and swam away. Sikander’s friend realized that he had found the fountain of life, also known as Aab-i-Hayat. He drank from the magical spring and told the soldiers to inform Sikander. By the time Sikander reached, the magical spring vanished along with his friend. Sikander’s dream remained unfulfilled, but his friend became a legend. His story can be traced back to the Gilgamesh epic, the Alexander romances, the Jewish legend of Elijah and Rabbi Joshua ben Levi, and even the Koran. He is known by many names. He is al-Khadir or Khwaja Khizr of Muslims, and Uderolal or Jind Pir of Hindus. He is the immortal prophet whose abode is a green island in the Indus River.  With a long white beard he rides along the banks of the river on a pala fish, helping people in trouble.

Khwaja Khizr

In 326BC Sikander became the first western king to cross the Indus River. He allied with the king of Taxila (also called Takshashila), Ambhi Kumar. That alliance was one of the reasons why Taxila University survived Sikander’s onslaught. Sikander’s men saw the university, the ‘like of which was not seen in Greece’. With help from Ambhi, Sikander built a bridge across Indus River. However, his confidence was shattered the moment he crossed into India. Sikander did manage to win against the resilient smaller Indian border tribes called Asvakas but only after a tough fight. The Asvaka women took up arms and fought alongside their men. They preferred a glorious death to a life of dishonor. Sikander was wounded in the fighting. The Macedonian army slaughtered the entire population of Massaga and Ora. However, Sikander’s soldiers were tired after the long and eventful journey away from home. They were now facing the most powerful empire they had encountered so far. With a small army, he easily defeated the mighty Persian Empire. However, he faced his toughest opponent in the form of Puru (Greek Porus), a ruler of a small Indian kingdom. The huge Indian war elephants and their superior weapons, like the two-metre bow, made the army of Puru formidable despite their small numbers. Sikander’s strength was his tactics and battle plan. He had no shortage of supply in the fertile Indus plain and maintained a continuous shipment of equipments all the way from Macedonia.

Alexander’s bold and unexpected move to cross the river at peak monsoon tilted the balance of the war in his favor. The Macedoian king marched across the river at night with 5,000 cavalry and 10,000 infantry, leaving behind major chunk of his soldiers and one person dressed as the king to deceive Puru. By the time Puru came to know about this unexpected move it was late. He assumed it to be a ruse, and send his son with just 2000 cavalry and 120 chariots to counter the attack. That was the blunder that cost Puru the war. Puru’s son died in the battle but not before wounding Sikander and killing his enemy’s favourite horse. It was still a moral victory for Sikander’s men. On hearing the news of his son’s death, fuming Puru attacked Sikander with his main force. After a long and fierce fighting Sikander managed to win the Battle of Hydaspes, but not before it left his army devastated. It was the costliest battle fought by Sikander’s men. Sikander was impressed by the bravery of Puru and asked him how he should be treated. Puru replied, ‘Like a king’. Alexander asked again if he had anything else to request. Puru explained, ‘Everything is comprised in the words, like a king’.

Puru accepts defeat

On the east of Ganges, India’s most powerful kingdoms were ready to take on Sikander. Sikander retreated, fearing a valiant attack from the joint forces of Nanda dynasty of Bihar and Gangaridai Empire of Vanga (which could well be the same empire). According to the writings of Greek authors like Megasthenes and Ptolemy, Gangaridai was the most powerful empire in India at that time. They maintained an army of ‘20,000 horses, 200,000 infantry, 2,000 chariots and 4,000 elephants trained and equipped for war’. Ruins of the empire have been excavated from a small village called Berachampa, just ~35 kilometres from Kolkata. It was probably the biggest army in the world of that time. Sikander’s army was homesick and was in no mood to take on their biggest foe. Fearing mutiny in his own camp, Sikander had to turn back disappointed without fulfilling his dream of conquering the world. The return journey happened through water instead of land. The ships sailed in the late 326BCE from Jhelum and Indus to the Arabian Sea. The downriver journey took six months due to the constant attack from the riverine people who have heard horrible tales about the conqueror of the world. One of the arrows stuck Sikander in the chest. He succumbed to the wounds around three years later.

Alexander the Great Receiving News of the Death by Immolation of the Indian Gymnosophist Calanus - Jean-Baptiste de Champaigne - 1672, Ref - Wiki

Once, while in India, Sikander asked a group of Jain philosophers why they were ignoring the great conqueror. The philosophers replied, ‘King Alexander, every man can possess only so much of earth’s surface as this we are standing on. You are but a human like rest of us. . . . You will soon be dead, and then you will own just as much of the earth as will suffice to bury you.’ Jainism was a dominant religion in Western India at that time and the wise monks impressed Sikander. He was especially fond of Calanus of Taxila, who criticized Greek philosophy with his sharp logic. The king took him to Persia as a teacher. At an age of 73 years Calanus decided that we was too weak to live anymore. The harsh weather of Persia took a toll on his body. The naked philosopher self-immolated himself, despite dissuasion from his legendary disciple. His last word to the king was, ‘We shall meet in Babylon’. But Sikander has no plans of going to Babylon. As fate would have it, that is where one of the greatest king of the world breathed his last. For the Indians, Sikander’s adventures were just a minor skirmish at the borders. Sikander did not leave behind much impact on Indian culture and thus hardly finds any mention in the contemporaneous texts. However, he did leave behind a porous connection between east and west through which art, science and culture diffused slowly over time. It is through the same border that a series of invasions took place.

Alexander's Empire REF : http://murugan.org/research/gopalapillai.htm

Reference

https://www.amazon.in/Journey-Survivors-000-Year-History-Sub-Continent/dp/1482873354

Also Check Out:  5 Questions of the Inquisitive Apes 

Written by Subhrashis Adhikari

"Engaging and entertaining, this page-turner is remarkable in its narration and will give you a new perspective on various aspects of life. Wellresearched and heartfelt, the encouraging tone throughout the book tries to motivate towards a happier life." - Times of India

Link:

https://www.amazon.in/Questions-Inquisitive-Ape-Subhrashis-Adhikari/dp/9387022552/ref=sr_1_1?keywords=subhrashis&qid=1570535712&sr=8-1

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Is there Free Will?

In this age of information, we are constantly being bombarded with data that affect our perception. Often times, the media persistently project a single story that gets imprinted in our brains, leading to prejudice. A country like India can be thought of as very unsafe for women. US could be thought of as a precarious place where you might get shot down the moment you land. People from Nigeria might be considered as tribal, even though Nigeria has perfectly modern cities. Once we are anchored to a particular way of thinking, it becomes very difficult to get rid of the prejudices. We often fail to comprehend that our opinion might be just one of the thousand possible stories that we have never heard. The single stories themselves may not be wrong. But, it is just a one-sided story. Truth is multi-faceted. Is our future multi-faceted too? Or is it that we do not have any free will?

"The problem of free will is not about the lack of choice or determinism, but about the way we choose."

Scott Adam’s 2004 Dilbert cartoon aptly says, ‘Free will is an illusion. People always choose the perceived path of greatest pleasure.’ Do we have free will? One would have thought that science has already solved this problem. Quite surprisingly, it hasn’t. It has only changed the way we look at the question. No more do we think that we are at the mercy of some higher powers. The problem of free will is not about the lack of choice or determinism, but about the way we choose. We may like to think that we are in control of our life, at least till we get married! Unfortunately, most of the things that happen to us are outside our control. I did not choose when, where and to whom I was born. I did not select my genes. And in all likelihood, I will have no free will about my death. My looks, my gender, my religion and nationality were predetermined. However, all these factors had a strong influence in determining who I am today. My genetics determines my nature, and my family determines my nurture. This means that we can never have complete freedom of choice. Random events along with our nature and nurture limit the choices we have. Having said that, there are a lot of things that are within our sphere of influence, like the way I want to colour my hair, the profession I want to be in, choosing my partner or when to have a baby. Even the choices that are in our control are influenced by external factors, especially our family. Rich people will have a different set of options than poor people for the same problem. Often our parents and teachers influence our career and thus the profession we choose. Choosing your partner is not just a one-sided decision; the other person needs to agree as well. When to have a baby, and sometimes even what colour you want your hair to be, is often a decision that you make along with your partner. How much of free will does that leave us with?

"We are a very negligible part of the entire universe. If the laws of physics guide everything in the universe, including the birth of the galaxy and origin of life, then why would our thoughts, or we for that matter, be any different?"

Let us ignore all the external factors for the time being and say that only you decide what to choose. When I started having thyroid problems, I noticed that I lost my temper very easily. I became a different person. It made me realize that a lot of what we are depends on the biochemical that flow in our body. These, in turn, depend on our brain. This is well documented in the case of Phineas P. Gage. In 1848, Gage suffered a major accident and lost a part of his brain. The loss of that particular part of the brain, prefrontal lobe to be exact, turned a cheerful well- mannered gentleman into a self-destructive habitual liar. Similar cases have been observed with other individuals with damaged prefrontal lobe. The prefrontal lobe, we now know, controls our emotions. Recent studies in neuroscience indicate that our thoughts could well be a product of biochemical algorithms written in our brain.

"We often fail to comprehend that our opinion might be just one of the thousand possible stories that we have never heard."

How we behave and react to situations depend more on the structure of our brain rather than the situation itself. Take for example the feelings of fear, anger, lust and love. They are the same all around the globe because they stem from the genetic make-up of our species and those feelings results from secretion of same biochemicals. When we are threatened, our brain releases adrenalin and cortisol that create the feeling of fear. Lust is governed by dopamine while the feeling of love by oxytocin. These chemicals are not any different for an African or a Chinese or a European. These chemicals can even be released artificially by intake of drugs or stimulating the right part of the brain through electrodes. We will have the feeling, corresponding to the part that is triggered, without any reason for feeling the same. What if the choice you are about to make is guided by your brain’s chemistry, determined by your genes and memories that you have no control over, following all the rules of physics that are fixed? We are a very negligible part of the entire universe. If the laws of physics guide everything in the universe, including the birth of the galaxy and origin of life, then why would our thoughts, or we for that matter, be any different?

This begs the question, where is free will? An interesting experiment was done almost 35 years ago by Dr. Benjamin Libet. Libet’s Experiment demonstrated that the unconscious response precedes, and potentially cause conscious or volitional decisions 300 milliseconds before you actually take that decision! If our unconscious mind is deciding for us, then it puts some serious doubts on our free will. Are we mistaking randomness for free will? The experiment received widespread fame and critics. May be our conscious mind has a veto power. May be, the way the experiment was conducted had flaws. Even then, we cannot disagree about the fact that absolute free will is a myth.


A 40-year-old man became addicted to child pornography after he developed tumour in the or bitofrontal cortex. Once the tumour was removed, his addiction vanished. Similarly, Charles Whitman, a 25-year-old loving husband suddenly turned into a mass murderer. The cause was a large tumour that pressed down his amygdala, a part of the brain that controls emotion. This brings us to the dilemma of justice. Who do we blame in such situation, the person or the tumour? Every decision we take is in some way affected by our genes, the way we were brought up, and any changes or damages that may happen to our brain. Some might argue that it is the non-conscious process in the brain that drives all our actions. While we can never be completely free, I would like to believe that we are not completely helpless about deciding our future. Or, at least my brain would want me to believe that. While the biochemical inside our body affect our behaviour, our behaviour in turn can affect the chemicals. With help of the right lifestyle, we can change the way we behave. With the help of medical treatments we can cure thyroid problems or tumours. I sincerely hope that it is not the apparent chaos which gives us the illusion of free will.

"We can go to the extent of saying that our perception is more of a hallucination than reality."

The way we make sense of the world depends on the way our brain receives information coming through the sense organs and make stories. In truth, we cannot sense anything directly. All our perceptions are indirect, with the help of proxies. We can go to the extent of saying that our perception is more of a hallucination than reality. One might say that our sense organs do a pretty good job of replicating the reality in our minds. That is why my interpretation of the world broadly matches yours. The Taj Mahal is the same for all the people who have seen it. Its beauty might be just in our brain, but the physical reality of the Taj Mahal has to exist. There must be a fundamental reality that is beyond the boundaries of our mind. What if we all are biased in the same way? We have evolved together and almost have the same genes. Since our brain is similar, our understanding has to be similar. 

Then there are a lot of things that we assume should match, actually does not. Different people interpret the same thing in different ways. Some may observe details, while others see the big picture. Some people have brains focused on facts, while others may be more imaginative. There is no right or wrong way to make sense of the universe. 

Even fundamental things like time and space are more mysterious than we think. Experiments in quantum physics are destroying the very fabric of our known comfortable world. And, it is not just at the micro scale. New experiments are replicating the weirdness of quantum world in macro scale. All possible realities might exist, and we just happen to remember one at a time. May be in one of the universes it is Schrödinger who is in the box and is both dead and alive till Dr. Cat opens it. The single universe of Classical Physics might be the simplified story that our brain writes. Does the Heisenberg uncertainty give us free will? It is more of a hope. The arrow of time works both ways in physics. If all possibilities exists and at all times....then each and every possibility is already fixed.

"All possible realities might exist, and we just happen to remember one at a time."

From the Book  5 Questions of the Inquisitive Apes

Written by Subhrashis Adhikari

"Engaging and entertaining, this page-turner is remarkable in its narration and will give you a new perspective on various aspects of life. Wellresearched and heartfelt, the encouraging tone throughout the book tries to motivate towards a happier life." - Times of India

Link:

https://www.amazon.in/Questions-Inquisitive-Ape-Subhrashis-Adhikari/dp/9387022552/ref=sr_1_1?keywords=subhrashis&qid=1570535712&sr=8-1

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5 insults that changed Indian History

The events happening around the world might seem like chaos and majority of them might appear to be insignificant. But all insignificant events have the power to create a small change on the initial conditions that can result in a significant outcome of history. This is known as the butterfly effect. Simple insults and pranks have resulted in overthrowing of empires and formation of global religions. Modern politicians are frequently locked in the war of throwing insults at each other. Slaps are making big rustle in Indian media now a days. From Gauri Khan to Shahrukh Khan, from Kejriwal to Sharad Pawar, all of them have been in the news for wrong reasons. Here are five slaps and insults that have changed the history of India, and of the world. One can never know about how things would have turned up if the past was a bit different. Some of the interpretations below might seem a bit stretched. With history there is always an alternative narrative. But, who knows?

1. An Insult that created one of the largest Empires of India

It was 3rd century BC. Alexander’s army were creating havoc on the other side of Indus. In Magadha, on the bank of Ganges, was the heart of the mighty Nanda Dynasty. Their reputation was enough to break the confidence of Alexander’s brave men. Dhana Nanda was the king at that time. He wanted to recruit a learned brahmin to run his charity centre. A dark and shavy brahmin entered the king’s court to apply for the position. The court had nine seats lined up on either side of the throne. Eight of them were meant for the princes, and one for the most learned brahmin. Without asking for permission, the dirty looking brahmin promptly sat on the ninth throne. When the princes asked him to step down, the brahmin refused. He said that he was the most learned Brahmin in the kingdom. He was ready to debate and prove his skill. If he lost he would step down. An angry Dhana Nanda ordered his men to drag the ugly brahmin out of the court. The soldiers pulled him by the turf of his hair and threw him out. The Brahmin, named Chanakya, took an oath “I will not tie my tuft of hair until I uproot the whole Nanda dynasty and establish dharma in Magadha. Rulers like you have spoiled Bharat. The tuft of hair which you arrogantly pull now will be like a serpent which comes back to bite you.” It indeed came back to bite them. Chanakya groomed an young kid named Chandragupta, and together they would destroy the Nanda Dynasty. It would be the beginning of Mauryan Empire, and a new era in Indian history. This would also be the beginning of cultural exchange between Indians and Greeks, changing East and West forever.

CHANAKYA

2. An innocent slap resulted in the spread of Buddhism around the globe

Chandragupta ruled for 24 years before leaving his throne to his son, Bindusara. Bindusara consolidated the Maurya Empire and ruled for 28 years. His son Sumana was groomed as the future king. One day young Sumana slapped the baldhead of his father’s chief minister as a prank. That small mistake would change not only his destiny but also that of the world. Radhagupta, the angry chief minister, realised that a man who does not respect others would never be an able king. He allied with other ministers and turned them against Sumana and in favour of another son of the king named Ashoka. When Bindusara heard that Ashoka was conspiring to kill him and seize the throne, he sent him away from their capital Pataliputra to govern a faraway land in Ujjain. It was here that Ashoka fell in love with a merchant’s daughter named Devi. Devi was an adherent follower of Buddhism, and it is from her that Ashoka learned about the religion. Meanwhile, there was a rebellion among the Taxilans. A sick and unsuspecting Bindusara, on the advice of his chief minister, sent his able son Sumana to curb the rebel. The king’s health was deteriorating. Bindusara immediately sent the news to Sumana and requested him to return as fast as he could. Radhagupta’s men purposefully delayed the news. It was Ashoka who got the news early and was able to reach Pataliputra before his brother. The king died soon after, and Ashoka declared himself as the new king. On hearing about the treachery of his brother, Sumana marched with his army to get back his throne. It was Radhagupta’s turn to return the prank, and this time it was more lethal. An artificial elephant was created with an image of Ashoka riding on it. A hidden ditch was dug around it as a trap. On seeing Ashoka, Sumana attacked it will full force but fell into the ditch and was killed. Ashoka became the new king of Magadha. Ashoka made Buddhism his state religion and invested a lot of money and effort to promote it in and outside India. If not for Ashoka, Buddhism would have never spread to China and there would have been no necessity to popularise printing. If you take away that one little child’s play from history, and with it the entire history of Buddhism, the world would have been a lot different. 

ASHOKA

3.  Arrogance that overthrew the Mughals

At their peak Mughals were the most powerful rulers in the world. It was during the time of Aurangzeb (ruled from 1658 to 1707) that the rein reached its greatest extent. The powerful king had one small problem down south. The problem had a name  - Shivaji. Shivaji, the Maratha King, was once called to Aurangzeb’s court with the promise of being given royal favours. Shivaji was persuaded by Jai Singh and was assured of protection. Shivaji came to the king’s court but felt insulted and went out of the court protesting. According to the Marathas the Mughals insulted Shivaji by treating him like a man of low status, while as per the Mughal authors Shivaji was rude to his king and misbehaved. The Rajput account mentions that people respected Shivaji, before he came to Aurangzeb’s court, for his bravery. But after the audacity he showed in the king’s court, people started praising his courage even more. Shivaji’s behaviour infuriated Aurangzeb, and he was persuaded by the nobles to imprison and probably kill Shivaji. Shivaji came to know of Aurangzeb’s intentions and managed to escape with his son, disguised as saints. Jai Singh might have helped him in the escape. After a lot of struggle and lucky escapes, Shivaji made it to Rajgad. Letting Shivaji escape was the biggest mistake the Mughals made. Aurangzeb remembered the mistake on his deathbed 50 years later. Shivaji’s coronation took place on 6 June 1674CE. He started printing his own coins, thus declaring independence from the Mughals. The Marathas would go on to replace the Mughals as the most powerful rulers of India.

SHIVAJI

4. A slap that created the Empire on which the Sun never Set

Decline of Mughal power adversely affected trade as roads became infested with thieves and pirates. Murshid Quli Khan, the Nawab of Bengal, declared himself independent from the Mughals. Murshid was born in a Brahmin family but was sold to a Persian nobleman. He lived his life in Persia before joining the Mughals in revenue department. Aurangzeb appointed him as the dewan of Bengal in 1700CE. After Aurangzeb’s death, he became the de facto ruler of Bengal. His liberal rule led to peace and prosperity. It was the beginning of independent Nawabs of Bengal. Young Siraj-ud-Daulah became the Nawab of Bengal in 1756CE. When he came to know about British ploy against him and fortification of Fort Williams, he attacked and seized Kolkata. Over five dozen captives were locked up in a cell meant for just six as a temporary arrangement. Unfortunately, they were kept there overnight due to miscommunication. Forty-three captives, including few British women, died inside the cell that has been named black hole. European media exaggerated the news and created a perfect opportunity to settle the matters. Robert Clive sailed from Chennai with his army to recapture Bengal. He first attacked and defeated the French who were supporting the Nawab in Chandernagar. The British then attacked Siraj in Plassey on the banks of Hooghly. Siraj lost the battle even before it began as few of his own men conspired against him. Siraj once slapped and imprisoned the wealthy banker Jagat Shet after he refused to give him a loan of 3 crore rupees. Jagat Shet was the most powerful banker of his time, and had a lot of political connections. East India Companies official historian Roben Orme described his as 'the greatest shroff (money changer) and banker' in the known world. Jagat refused to be one of Siraj’s oppressed subjects. Angry Jagat, along with Omichund and Mir Jafar, allied with Robert Clive. The betrayal made it an easy win for the British in what was supposed to be the most decisive battle in the history of the world. A slap once made Buddhism a dominant world religion. Another one helped British dominate the globe. Siraj managed to run away but was caught and murdered. British Empire might have never spread to Bengal and rest of the world if not for that slap. 

MURSHID QULI KHAN

5. The insult that divided India

Jinnah was one of the brightest political leaders of India. He studied in a madrassa in Karachi and was trained as a barrister in Lincoln’s Inn. He was the youngest Indian to be called to the bar in England. Jinnah was working towards Hindu-Muslim unity and was part of the moderate faction of Congress. By the time Gandhi joined INC, the moderates had become weak and Jinnah was left alone. He joined All India Muslims League (AIML) to bridge the growing gap between the League and Congress. Jinnah did not like Gandhi’s over-religious approach to politics and the mass hysteria he created. To him, ‘politics is a gentleman’s game’. After his wife’s death, Jinnah settled in London with his daughter Dina. That would have been the end of his political carrier. When he heard from his friend that Jawaharlal said ‘Jinnah is finished’, he returned to politics and to India with vengeance. Jinnah and his  party AIML started their campaign for partition. The new country would be called Pakistan, meaning the land of pure. It also had the initials of Punjab, Afghan, Kashmir, and Sindh. To achieve this objective, Jinnah brought himself close to the British government. Jinnah's revenge led to bloodbath during partition of India, the repercussions of which can be felt even today.

JINNAH

Do you know of any small events that have triggered big historical events? Comment below.

Written by Subhrashis Adhikari

Author of 5 Questions of the Inquisitive Apes

"Engaging and entertaining, this page-turner is remarkable in its narration and will give you a new perspective on various aspects of life. Wellresearched and heartfelt, the encouraging tone throughout the book tries to motivate towards a happier life." - Times of India

Link:

https://www.amazon.in/Questions-Inquisitive-Ape-Subhrashis-Adhikari/dp/9387022552/ref=sr_1_1?keywords=subhrashis&qid=1570535712&sr=8-1

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Evolution of Durga - Connecting with the World

Having travelled around the world and interacting with different people I have come to realise one thing - despite the apparent difference in language, culture and cuisines, human beings are very similar... and why not? A lot of our behaviour is guided by our genes, and the genetic difference between individual humans is just 0.1%. While the look, dress and music to which people danced and celebrated in Xian had no resemblance to the festive mood in a weekend at Kremlin, one can still find an underlying connection. People strolling with their families, eating their favourite foods and drinks, children running around, laughter, gossip and fun. It is the connection of emotions that unites us. Goddesses and gods.... stories and mythologies....all emerge from the same emotions. On this occasion of homecoming of Goddess Durga after slaying the demon, let us look at the underlying connection that we have with the world.

Lion symbolises strength, courage and leadership. Goddesses and lions have an ancient connection. Is it because the lioness are the most powerful female species that hunt themselves and also provides for the pride? Is it because the constellation Virgo follows Leo in the sky (read heaven) above? I wonder! 

It is a common myth that primitive men were hunters and women were gatherers. This narrow interpretation is a stereotype of our modern binary mind. Recent studies have shown that women played a broader role than just doing the household stuff. They went to hunt, they wielded stone tools, and they painted the walls with cave art. Women were respected and powerful like the lionesses. Thus, the early 'gods' were not gods ... but goddesses.

Mother goddess ~6000BCE. Seated nude woman of Catal Huyuk Civilization.... She is seated between two big cats, probably lioness....

The idol above from Anatolia is the oldest unearthed representation of a goddess with felines as pet. There are over 40 goddesses in Egypt that were associated with lions or other felines. Many of such goddesses are married to gods represented by bulls. Asherah is one such ancient Semitic goddess (figure below) who is married to El, the Bull God. Some mythologists associate bull with moon and lion with sun, and the marriage represents the union between the two. Durga's husband is Shiva and he too is associated with Nandi the bull.

Asherah

Like Durga, some of the ancient goddesses (below) have a snake in their hand. It represents fertility and vegetation.

Qadesh, Egyptian goddess with snake in her hand

Cybele is a Greek-Roman goddess who has been inspired by the goddess of Anatolia. She is the earth goddess and is often called Great Mother, Mountain Mother or the Mother of Gods. Parvati is another name of Durga and has its root in the word 'parvat', meaning mountain. Durga is the daughter of mountain god, the ruler of Himalayas, King Himavan. There is another connection between Cybele and Durga. They both are associated with sacrifice of bulls / buffaloes. Sacrifice of animals is commonly associated with mother goddesses and was an integral part of goddess worship in the Tantra cult of Hinduism (Read about tantric goddess Kamakhya). 

Cybele

Just like Durga, Ishar or Inanna was a Sumerian goddess of love and war. Her battle is referred to as 'Dance of Inanna' that reminds one of the dance of Goddesses Kali, another form of Durga. Sumerians of Mesopotamia and Harappans of India were amongst the earliest people to build a civilisation and they were connected through trade. There has been a lot of cultural exchanges between the two great civillizations, just like between the Greeks with the Indians later. It won't be far fetched to expect that they have influenced each-other.

Ishar or Inanna, Sumerian goddess of love and war

The goddess has evolved over time in India. Goddess and tigers have been found from Indus Valley seals. Uma and Ambika were the earliest reference of goddess in Vedas. She was later referred to as Devi or Shakti. However, the name Parvati and Durga came much later. It became common only during Gupta Era (beginning ~319 CE).

Durga Slaying Buffalo, 3rd Century CE, Mathura

The earliest Durga idols depicts her killing a buffalo. In the above idol from Mathura she has only four hands and her pet lion is missing. Some mythologists associate her with killing of wild buffalos or pushing them out of low lands during the ripening of crops. The time of ripening matches with the time of Durga Puja. Others associate it with fight between different tribes. There is a small tribe of 50 families in North Bengal who mourn the death of Ashura during Durga Puja.

5th Century Mahishasuramardini from Udaigiri Caves, Bhopal

The 5th century sculpture (above) from Udaigiri shows Durga with 10 hands slaying a buffalo. It is only when she is fighting does she have the extra hands. At times of peace, while she is with her husband, she only has two hands. See the sculpture below.

Shiv Parvati at Mount Kailash.... Ellora 6th to 8th century CE (Cave 29, or Dhumar Lena) .... Ravana trying to lift or shake the mountain from below.... This type of sculpture is known as Ravananugraha, a common theme since Gupta era.

7-8th century Durga of Kashmir...

It was smuggled out of Kashmir and later recovered from Germany....

The idol above is from similar time as Ellora. Count the number of hands she has.

Mahishasuramardini from Rani ki vav, Patan, Gujarat.

11 th century Chaulukya Dynasty.

Mahishasura Mardini, 7 th century Pallava Dynasty, Mamallapuram.

In the beautiful sculpture shown above, built by the Pallava Dynasty, Durga has ten hands and is slaying a buffalo headed demon, instead of a buffalo. In modern times, the buffalo-demon Mahishasura comes out of its buffalo avatar before being killed by Durga. Not just Durga, even Mahishasur has evolved - from a humble water buffalo to a demon.

2019 idol of Durga

It is interesting that Durga with a pet lion is worshipped in Eastern India where there are no lions. Tigers are more common there. Since the eastern Indians were not used to Lions, the lions of early Durga idols are not perfect. They looked more like iguana. I have seen similar deformation happening to pictures of elephants in Mongolia. the concept of elephants reached there with Buddhism that spread from Tibet. Asiatic lions are indigenous to Western India, and ironically in west and north India Durga's pet is tiger. She is known as the 'Sherawali mata'.

Goddess Durga evolved further as tantric Buddhism took the idea to Tibet (Pladen Lhamo) and Japan (Butso-mo). 

Pladen Lhamo of Tibetian Buddhism

There are two types of people around the globe. One who find faults in other groups to feel better, others who find faults in their own kind to become better. My professor Anindya Sarkar rightly said, 'history of religion is dynamic and hence interesting, contrary to the static versions perpetuated these days'. As we immerse the idol of Durga this Dasami and burn the effigy of Ravan in Dusshera, let us immerse our differences and burn our bigotry. We are all connected, and all our ideas are flexible. We evolve, as does our ideas of gods, goddesses and religion. 

It is the connection of emotions that unites us. 

Written by Subhrashis Adhikari

Author of 5 Questions of the Inquisitive Apes

"Engaging and entertaining, this page-turner is remarkable in its narration and will give you a new perspective on various aspects of life. Wellresearched and heartfelt, the encouraging tone throughout the book tries to motivate towards a happier life." - Times of India

Link:

https://www.amazon.in/Questions-Inquisitive-Ape-Subhrashis-Adhikari/dp/9387022552/ref=sr_1_1?keywords=subhrashis&qid=1570535712&sr=8-1

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